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Nearest-Reasonable-Referent Canon. When the syntax involves something other than a parallel series of
nouns or verbs, a prepositive or postpositive modifier normally applies only to the nearest reasonable
referent.
Proviso Canon. A proviso conditions the principal matter that it qualifies—almost always the matter
immediately preceding.
Scope-of-Subparts Canon. Material within an indented subpart relates only to that subpart; material
contained in unindented text relates to all the following or preceding indented subparts.
Punctuation Canon. Punctuation is a permissible indicator of meaning.
CONTEXTUAL CANONS
Whole-Text Canon. The text must be construed as a whole.
Presumption of Consistent Usage. A word or phrase is presumed to bear the same meaning throughout
a text; a material variation in terms suggests a variation in meaning.
Surplusage Canon. If possible, every word and every provision is to be given effect (verba cum effectu
sunt accipienda). None should be ignored. None should needlessly be given an interpretation that
causes it to duplicate another provision or to have no consequence.
Harmonious-Reading Canon. The provisions of a text should be interpreted in a way that renders them
compatible, not contradictory.
General/Specific Canon. If there is a conflict between a general provision and a specific provision, the
specific provision prevails (generalia specialibus non derogant).
Irreconcilability Canon. If a text contains truly irreconcilable provisions at the same level of generality,
and they have been simultaneously adopted, neither provision should be given effect.
Predicate-Act Canon. Authorization of an act also authorizes a necessary predicate act.
Noscitur a sociis - Associated-Words Canon. Associated words bear on one another’s meaning.
Ejusdem Generis Canon. Where general words follow an enumeration of two or more things, they apply
only to persons or things of the same general kind or class specifically mentioned (ejusdem generis).
Distributive-Phrasing Canon. Distributive phrasing applies each expression to its appropriate referent
(reddendo singula singulis).
Prefatory-Materials Canon. A preamble, purpose clause, or recital is a permissible indicator of meaning.
Title-and-Headings Canon. The title and headings are permissible indicators of meaning.
Interpretive-Direction Canon. Definition sections and interpretation clauses are to be carefully followed.