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CUSTOMER AND MANAGER’S PERCEPTION AND PREFERENCE ON
FOOD SERVER GENDER IN FINE-DINING ESTABLISHMENTS
by
Watcharobon Wiraboot
Bachelor of Arts in English
Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
2002
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the
Master of Science Degree in Hotel Administration
William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration
Graduate College
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
December 2006
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UMI Number: 1441741
Copyright 2007 by
Wiraboot, Watcharobon
All rights reserved.
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T hesis A pproval
The G ra d uate College
U n iv e rs ity o f N evada, Las Vegas
N ove m b e r 9
.20 06
The Thesis prepared by
W a tc h a ro b o n W ir a b o o t
E n title d
C u s to m e r a n d M a n a g e r 's P e r c e p t i o n a n d P r e fe re n c e o n F o o d S e r v e r
G e n d e r i n F in e - D i n in g E s t a b lis h m e n t s
is a p p rove d in pa rtial fu lfillm e n t o f the requirem ents fo r the degree of
M a s t e r o f S c ie n c e i n H o t e l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
■Examination Committee Member
E x a m in a tion E o n n p itti’eJvtember
/ l l . /
I 11 ■ '- 'v.
------
s—I-— ——
Graduate College F aculty Representative
—
__
Exam ination Comnw
nair
Dean o f the Graduate College
11
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ABSTRACT
Customer and Manager’s Perception and Preference on
Food Server Gender In Fine-Dining Establishments
by
Watcharobon Wiraboot
Dr. Kathryn LaTour, Examination Committee Chair
Assistant Professor of Hotel Administration
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
American fine dining established itself as a lucrative business opportunity in
the 19*^ century and was significantly influenced by European dining practices,
which mostly notably included the practice of hiring only male servers (Prewitt,
2000). Despite changes in contemporary fine dining that are trending toward a
less formal environment, some restaurants still hire only male servers. The
p
urpose of this study is to explore how managers and customers feel about
server gender in fine-dining establishments. It will also determine whether a
disconnect exists between customers and managers’ perceptions regarding the
gender of fine dining servers.
Qualitative research, using the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique
(ZMET), was performed with five fine-dining patrons from locations throughout
the United States and five fine-dining restaurant managers from various
establishments in Los Angeles, California and Las Vegas, Nevada. One-on-one
in-depth interviews were conducted with participants who brought images they
selected to represent their thoughts and feelings about the gender of food
III
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servers.
The results Illustrate that some disconnect exists between managers and
customers in their perception and preference on food server gender in fine-dining
restaurants. Customers are slightly more open to female servers whereas
managers tend to feel more comfortable working with male servers. However, it
is interesting to note the paradox that managers do not feel uncomfortable with
female servers when visiting fine-dining restaurants as patrons. In addition, the
culture and experience of managers and customers has played an essential role
in forming the perceptions and expectations of food server gender in fine dining.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
..................................................................................................................
ni
TABLE OF CONTENTS
..............................................................................................
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
...........................................................................................
vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
...............................................................................
1
Purpose of the Study
.............................................................................................
3
Research Question
................................................................................................
4
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
............................................
6
Fine-Dining Industry Overview
..............................................................................
6
Perceptions and Expectations
............................................................................
10
Gender Related Issues in Restaurant Hierarchy
..............................................
12
Gender Stereotypes
............................................................................................
13
Discrimination in Hiring
........................................................................................
15
The Change in Fine Dining
.................................................................................
17
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
.....................................................
19
Instrument
.............................................................................................................
19
Sample Selection
.................................................................................................
20
Data Collection Procedures
................................................................................
23
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS
................................................................
26
Data Analysis
........................................................................................................
26
Picture Interpretation
...........................................................................................
32
Manager’s Perspectives in Managing Female vs. Male Servers
....................
34
Manager’s Perspectives in Fine Dining Careers
..............................................
36
Dynamics between Genders
...............................................................................
37
Customer’s Expectations
....................................................................................
38
Customer and Manager’s Views on Restaurant Ambience
as Related to the Gender of Food Servers
..................................................
39
Customer and manager’s View on the Change of Generations
......................
40
Manager’s Justifications on the Hiring Process................................................42
Geographical Limitations
....................................................................................
43
Conclusion
............................................................................................................
44
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CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
............................................
46
Discussion of Results
..........................................................................................
46
Limitations
.............................................................................................................
48
Implications
.........................................................................................................
50
Directions for Future Research
...........................................................................
51
APPENDIX I VISUAL ANALYSIS
...........................................................................
53
APPENDIX II SHORT STORIES
.............................................................................
73
BIBLIOGRAPHY
........................................................................................................
76
VITA
............................................................................................................................
82
VI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study would not have been completed without support and commitment
from my committee members, family and friends, and all of the interview
participants.
I extend deep appreciation and thanks to my committee members who
supported me throughout the study, and especially to my committee chairperson,
Dr. Kathryn LaTour, who introduced me to and inspired me to use the Zaltman's
Metaphor Elicitation Technique as a research methodology. I am deeply thankful
to Dr. Yen Soon Kim, Dr. Michael LaTour and Dr. Jean Hertzman for giving me
valuable guidance and insight about my research.
I am deeply grateful to Rich, mom, dad, grandma. Chat, and the rest of my
family in Thailand for believing in me, and for giving me guidance and support
during every step of the way. Without the loving support from my family, I would
not have had the courage and strength to complete my thesis and to finish my
graduate studies at UNLV.
I would also like to recognize and thank all my friends, especially Ronald, JJ,
and Stephen for their support.
Finally, special appreciation is also extended to all of the participants in this
study who gave me valuable contributions throughout the interview processes.
VII
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CHAPTER I
THE GENDER OF FOOD SERVERS IN
THE FINE DINING INDUSTRY
Introduction
In 2004, Palm Restaurant Management Corp., owner and operator of 29 Palm
restaurants nationwide, agreed to pay $500,000 to women who were denied jobs
as servers because they were female. Based on job applications and other
evidence, there were more over 400 female applicants who declared they were
claimants. The settlement resolved a sexual-discrimination charge filed in 1999
by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The commission had
alleged that the steakhouse chain failed to recruit and hire women as servers,
and instead preserved those jobs for men (News Digests, 2004). Joe’s Stone
Crab in Miami, one of the highest grossing independently owned restaurants in
the United States, had to pay $154,000 in damage to women who tried to apply
for food serving positions and were not offered jobs. A federal district judge
found that from 1986 to 1995 this popular restaurant maintained an all male
hiring policy (Prewitt, 2000).
According to critics, this exclusionary tradition of hiring only males to work as
servers in fine-dining establishments is not only against the law, it’s also unjust
and bad for the image of the industry (Prewitt, 2000). Although female food
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servers account for approximately 76% of all food severs actively working in the
market (National Restaurant Association, 2005), some fine dining restaurants
today still hire only male servers (Prewitt, 2000). One consideration that
emerges is whether employing more males than females as servers in expensive
restaurants is performed to appease customer preference and satisfaction or
because the practice supports the paradigm and traditional perception of
restaurant management that male servers are more appropriate and effective for
the fine-dining industry. Although extensive studies have been done on gender
related topics in various industries, very few empirical studies have been
completed regarding gender in the fine-dining industry.
Researchers of labor markets have suggested that male servers are favored
in high-priced, formal restaurants where wages and tips are higher. Male
servers appear to have the vast majority of jobs in high-priced restaurants, hotel
dining rooms, private clubs and other establishments where meal service is
formal (Neumark & Bank, 1996). Bergmann’s (1974) study claims that conflict
between waitresses and other male employees in restaurants is one reason that
leads to the segregation of waiters into high-price restaurants and waitresses
into low-price restaurants. The study claimed that restaurants in the United
States offering fine food and luxurious settings are so expensive that tips and
wages for the wait staff are high enough to attract male waiters who traditionally
win the most lucrative jobs in fine-dining. In cheaper restaurants, the owners
cope with gender conflict rather than supplement the tips to the extent necessary
to be able to hire male waiters. Moreover, Bergmann (1974) stated that many
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restaurant owners don’t employ waitresses but if they were to hire females they
would assign them to hostess positions or to less lucrative shifts, leaving the
males with shifts that offer higher tips.
Purpose of the Study
This study focuses on the gender of food servers in fine-dining restaurants,
which are described as establishments that undertake to provide a formal,
structured dining experience at the premium end of the market (Restaurant
Category Definitions, 2005). The National Restaurant Association has defined a
fine-dining restaurant as the type of establishment where waiters and waitresses
serve elaborate meals that customers would not likely prepare at home (National
Restaurant Association, 1990). One key to this study will be to delineate or to
determine what distinguishes fine-dining and other less-expensive or more
informal restaurants where female servers are more prevalent.
One benefit of this study is that it should improve the service quality relating
to the gender of food servers in fine-dining restaurants by presenting findings that
may improve training and hiring policies in fine-dining establishments. The results
will also help both industry researchers and restaurant managers better
understand the phenomena of male only hiring in fine-dining restaurants. Lastly
and most significantly, the study will help answer the question of whether there is
a disconnect in the perception and preference between customers and
management regarding the gender of food servers in fine-dining establishments.
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This study will benefit restaurateurs who will be able to make more customer-
oriented decisions when hiring and training their food servers; instead of
following the traditional practice of hiring male servers for fine-dining
establishments, restaurateurs may begin to question the paradigm of using only
males servers, and whether or not contemporary social issues have changed
customer perceptions. The study will also elicit customers’ points of view about
current fine-dining practices that will clarify customer preferences when eating at
expensive restaurants.
Research Question
The prior literature reviews related to this topic have not yet paid much
attention to the customer’s point of view. Although the study by Neumark and
Bank (1996) has pointed out that some customer discrimination regarding food
servers’ gender may exist, it still was not clear exactly why certain customers
preferred male servers over female, and no explanations were offered. Most
studies have examined what is commonly practiced in the industry through
observations and management, but previous researchers have not yet
specifically studied the fine-dining industry. Most fine-dining research has been
included with other types of restaurants such as fast food, family, and casual
dining.
From the literature and throughout other research, there has been significant
scrutiny of luxury dining establishments that employ only male servers. Although
many managers and owners of fine-dining establishments claimed that they had
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not discriminated against females and would welcome them to work as
waitpersons just like other male servers, the practice still continues. An example
is the Palace Arms, a 50-year-old premiere luxury fine-dining restaurant in
Denver that has not had a female server for eight years from 1992-2000 (Prewitt,
2000). The explanation given by the owners and managers of those restaurants
is that there are not many skilled female servers who are capable of working in
fine-dining restaurants because they lack of experience when compared to male
servers. Many managers and owners claim qualified women are hard to find and
that the turnover rate among female servers is much higher than male servers
(Prewitt, 2000).
The question that emerges from this study centers around whether there is a
disconnect in the perception and preference between customers and
management in fine-dining establishments regarding the gender of food servers.
This study will explore consumers’ and managers’ minds and attempt to explore
their food-server gender preference and their attitudes towards servers in fine-
dining restaurants. This study will also attempt to elicit and decipher both
managers’ and customers’ feelings and thoughts about having service providers
of the "unexpected" sex in fine-dining establishments (Neumark & Bank, 1996).
In-depth studies will help unveil the impact of the tradition and prestigious factors
of fine dining in association with the prevalence of male waitpersons.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Fine-Dining Industry Overview
The influence of French cuisine and dining has impacted fine dining today in
the United States. Before a restaurant was formally recognized as a place to eat,
restaurant was something to eat, bouillon, or restorative broth. Encarta
Dictionary: English (North America) defines bouillon as a clear liquid that is
traditionally made by boiling meat, bones, and vegetables together. The
restaurant concept was originally a place of urban sociability that sold very little
solid food and focused on selling bouillon. By the 1820s many restaurants in
Paris started to offer a wide variety of food products served by well-mannered
and polished waiters. Restaurants were exclusively considered a Parisian
phenomenon until the middle of the nineteenth century. American and English
travelers to Paris were in awe of its restaurants and considered them remarkable
(Spang, 2000).
American fine dining established itself in the 19*" century and copied the
European restaurant model by most notably using an all male service staff.
European fine dining is historically gender specific, especially in relation to server
positions (Prewitt, 2000). In addition, European influence on American fine
dining had culinary roots as many United States renowned chefs and successful
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restaurant owners came from Europe and brought with them what they learned
during their apprenticeships in France and other countries in Europe. Jean
Jaques Rachou, chef and owner of New York City’s famous La Cote Basque, is
an example of someone who came to the United States after enduring difficult
and rigorous apprenticeships in France and Europe. Rachou never acquired a
formal, academic culinary education and came to New York in 1968 (Prewitt,
2003) and managed to become successful in American fine dining.
Over the years, the European apprenticeship system has developed and
spread throughout the United States. Currently, many culinary schools offer
formal training and hands-on apprenticeship programs for students who are
interested in cooking. This is a departure from the past, when the only way for
students to learn how to cook professionally was to toil for years in many
kitchens until they became established chefs (Steintragger, 2001).
Initially in the United States, the most luxurious dining was found in the large
hotels of a few major cities. The era of the luxury hotel started in 1829 when the
Tremont House opened in Boston, followed soon after in the 1830s by the
elegant Astor House in New York City. The earlier inns had the custom of
offering all guests set meals, paid for by the guests whether eaten or not, and
served at long tables during fixed hours. During the 1830s, the larger
metropolitan hotels started offering their table meals in courses. Some of the
larger hotels abandoned the fixed courses in favor of menus from which each
guest ordered separately. This became a general feature at major hotels by the
1850s. French cuisine was particularly favored in these establishments, although
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a number of hotels were openly American In their offerings (An American Feast,
1998).
French cuisine became popular in the United States around the end of the
19^^ century. By 1880, and as the American economy expanded rapidly and new
middle and upper classes emerged, more people developed sophisticated tastes
in food, fashion and design. Also during the 19** century, many cookbooks
written by Urbain Dubois (1818-1901), helped demonstrate the influence of
French cuisine in American fine dining. Dubois was a celebrated chef who
cooked for the Rothschild family and for Prince Orloff of Russia. He produced
eight cookbooks, many of which were translated into English and sold in America
and England. The French menus and table settings of Dubois’ work gave
ambitious restaurateurs a chance to imitate the elegant manners and cuisine of
France (Not by Bread Alone, 2002).
During the 19*" century, many city restaurants rivaled and surpassed the great
hotels as centers of good cooking. In particular, two restaurants in New York
City created the most sophisticated fine dining experience. Taylor's flourished
during the 1850s and had a very elegant appearance, and offered customers an
extravagant ambience. Delmonico's, founded in the 1820s and open for nearly a
century, was a restaurant that concentrated on cuisine and became a standard of
culinary excellence in New York City (An American Feast, 1998). The restaurant
was a novelty in New York, and it frequently offered a wide variety of new menu
items. The restaurant also maintained a courteous staff, and achieved a level of
8
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cooking that was unmatched within the homes of even the wealthiest New
Yorkers (O'Connell, 2001 ).
The fine-dining industry in the United States developed rapidly throughout the
20*^ century, and most recently has undergone significant changes that were
primarily caused by customer desire for a more informal dining experience.
Casual and contemporary fine dining has become trendy (Koteff, 2006),
especially in major cities and for younger generations.
Fine dining is a major element of the United States economy, and it is a
healthy and growing market segment. The restaurant industry employs an
estimated 12.5 million people, making it the nation’s largest employer outside of
government. Restaurant industry sales are expected to reach a record $511
billion in 2006 (National Restaurant Association). Labor and materials are the
two largest and most important expenses that restaurant businesses have to
address in their budgets (Crandall, Vozikis, & Sparks, 1996). Almost 70% of fine
dining operators expect business to be better in 2006 than 2005 (National
Restaurant Association & Malcolm M. Knapp, Inc., 2006). Although female food
servers are the majority of all food severs actively working in the market (National
Restaurant Association, 2005), some fine dining restaurants today still hire only
males to be food servers (Prewitt, 2000).
The industry in the United States traditionally has been highly gender
segregated. Female servers tended to work in less lucrative restaurants such as
local diners, family restaurants, or fast food establishments with little or no
advancement opportunity. Male servers on the other hand, worked in similar
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establishments, but far more men than woman made their careers in the most
prestigious fine-dining restaurants where much higher earnings were established
and higher status positions such as maitre d’, connoisseur, or captain could be
achieved (Cobble, 1991).
Because a substantial percentage of business in fine-dining restaurants is
repeat business, customers appreciate being served by familiar staff. Therefore,
most staff in fine-dining restaurants is full-time and regards their job as a career
(Davis, Lockwood, & Stone, 1998). While fine-dining restaurant operators admit
that maintaining customers' loyalty is getting more difficult, about 60% of fine-
dining restaurant sales come from repeat customers (National Restaurant
Association & Malcolm M. Knapp, Inc., 2003). The percentage of restaurants
today that may be described as quality restaurants or fine-dining restaurants is
small; it may be as little as five percent of the total number of restaurants in all
sectors of the restaurant industry. However, there is expected growth in the
future (Davis et al., 1998).
Perceptions and Expectations
Providing the best food and drinks can be as important as quality service,
especially in fine-dining establishments. Consumers today believe that they have
the right to receive products and services that meet their expectations (Hart &
Casserly, 1985). Fischer, Gainer, and Bristor (1997) conducted a study linking
the perception of service quality to the gender of service providers. The study
explored whether the gender of the service provider has any influence on the
10
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perceptions of the service quality in the restaurant industry. This study has
focused on the theory of in-group bias or homophily based perception and
consumer’s “server stereotypes” concerning which gender does a better job of
serving food in a particular setting (Fischer et al., 1997). Homophily is the
tendency for people to associate and develop friendships, marriages, work
relationships, etc. with people similar to themselves. Various demographic
characteristics, like age, gender, socio-economic class, ethnicity, education,
occupation, etc., can provide boundaries around relationships. An individual's
beliefs and values (i.e., religious, political) can also be influential. As an example,
the in-group or homophily based assumption occurs when male customers feel
that they have received better service from male servers or conversely, when
female customers feel that they have received better service from female servers.
Although the overall result of the study by Fischer et al. (1997) suggested that
server gender stereotypes have some impact on the assessment of service
quality, it appeared that sex-based in-group bias or homophily did not influence
assessments of service quality. Women and men do not expect that they will
receive better service from servers who are the same gender. This study pointed
out the possibility that most men and women tend not to define themselves on an
in-group/out-group basis depending primarily on their sex. In other words, they
may also define themselves or group themselves by considering other categories
such as race, age or religion. This would mean that the gender of a server is not
a relevant or sufficient cue to trigger in-group bias. This study suggests that in
order to successfully understand the whole concept of service quality.
11
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researchers and managers must be sensitive to the interactions between: (a) the
gender of customers; (b) the gender of service providers, and (c) the "gendered"
expectations associated with particular service settings. Failure to take these
factors into account can be problematic.
Gender Related Issues in Restaurant Hierarchy
It is necessary to discuss restaurant hierarchy as it is highly related to
gender’s role of food servers and other restaurant workers. The hierarchical
characteristics of a restaurant’s internal organization are often justified in terms
of perceived levels of skill differences. Levels of skill are often ideologically
constructed rather than empirically based (LaPointe, 1992). Although the
waitress’s job is different than that of other workers, the belief that it requires less
skill or shorter periods of time to learn finds little basis in the reality of the work.
Again, a good example is the difference between serving in a fine-dining
restaurant, which is often done by male waiters, and the serving done by female
waitresses in a diner. Working in these two restaurants is different but equally
demanding. A diner’s food server has to learn to deal with diverse customers, a
fast pace and a physically demanding environment. In a fine-dining restaurant,
service is conducted at a slower pace. However, servers must learn a great deal
about food and wine to be able to recommend and successfully sell these
products (LaPointe).
The gender of the servers affects customer’s perceptions of the encounter.
Waiters are often considered more prestigious and skilled, but waitresses are
12
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seen as simply doing a job that comes “naturally” to them (LaPointe, 1992).
According to the study by LaPointe (about gendered social distance in
restaurants), men fail to see themselves as working with co-equals, but rather
attempt to maintain subordinate/dominant relations through actions that
symbolize their higher status and undermine their common interests with female
coworkers.
In the restaurant industry, formal organizational procedures, such as
gendered dress codes, affects both the way food service is perceived and the
process of interaction with customers, as when restaurant employers use female
sexuality to sell. In addition, prevailing assumptions about the male breadwinner
role are clear; waitresses’ tipped earnings are lower than waiters (LaPointe,
1992). In occupations filled predominantly by women, especially those in service
sector, men are often hired as supervisors, while women continue to toil in the
lower positions (Sokoloff, 1987). Waitresses must also typically be responsive to
a foray of male bosses, such as chefs and managers. Waitresses not only have
to perform their everyday job, but must cope with the gender hierarchy they
encounter.
Gender Stereotypes
From the previous studies with regards to work and sex roles, the work role
often overrides behavioral or attitudinal differences attributable to gender.
Regardless of the socialization that causes males and females to behave
similarly, there are instances in which sex role differences override work roles.
13
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which suggest different reactions and behavior between men and women (Babin
& Boles, 1998). Differences arise on the basis of male tendencies toward high
assertiveness, task mastery, and individualism, and female tendencies toward
concern for people, devotion, and compliance. Personality research is generally
consistent with men showing relatively high levels of exploratory or mastery
tendencies and women showing greater passiveness (Pulkkinen, 1996). Social
cognition research suggests that the most commonly associated characteristics
of the typical female or "woman" stereotype are "emotional, weak, dependent,
passive, uncompetitive, and unconfident" (Fiske & Stevens, 1993, p. 179).
Although stereotypes contain misconceptions, they sometimes contain "kernels
of truth" (Hoffman & Hurst, 1990, p. 197) with regard to behavior. Despite
progress, there is still a workplace power discrepancy with correspondingly
smaller number of women in managerial positions, and this is the case in the
fine-dining category
Previous research suggests that women in the service industry are affected
more severely by increased stress, especially in customer-contact environments.
Research also suggests that women might need more concrete guidance about
what they can and cannot do to fix conflict between customer’s and manager’s
expectations. Male service providers, on the other hand, need more room to
make their own decisions as they have more confidence in doing their jobs
(Babin & Boles, 1998).
In the traditional restaurant literature, male servers dressed as butlers in the
home were expected to provide "professional ” service in upscale dinner houses
14
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while female servers wearing sexy uniforms were expected to provide friendly
service in family-style restaurants and coffee shops. Hiring young attractive
women and giving them uniforms that reveal their sexuality is a very common
practice in restaurant industry (Hall, 1993b).
There are many existing stereotypes that one gender is better than the other
at providing a certain service and there is a well-documented tendency for an
occupation that has been dominated by one sex to be stereotyped as being
better suited to the skills and characteristic of the persons of that sex (Basow,
1992). The study by Cialdini and Goldstein (2002) shows an interesting finding
of the smiley-face strategy, which suggested that female servers who smile at
their customers could increase their average tip size by 18%. The same strategy
is not only ineffective for male servers but it could potentially reduce their tip size
b
ecause of the perceived violations of gender-based expectations. Moreover,
delivering "excellent" service may mean different things to men and women
(Lacobucci & Ostrom, 1993). Although many studies have been conducted
regarding gender stereotypes and preference in analyzing restaurant servers,
none have clearly identified the reasons behind the continuance and dominance
of male servers in fine-dining restaurants, and the further research is required.
Discrimination in Hiring
The lawsuits against Palm restaurants, Joe’s Stone Crab in Miami and other
fine dining restaurants proves that discrimination against hiring female servers
exists in fine-dining restaurants. It is necessary to look into the hiring process in
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order to answer the question of why there are significantly more male servers
than female in fine-dining settings. Sex discrimination occurs when a person is
treated differently because of his/her gender and when the different treatment
negatively affects the “terms or conditions of employment.” The practice of sex
discrimination is illegal. “Terms or conditions of employment” include: position,
pay, title, being hired or fired from a job, and advancement and training
opportunities. The federal law prohibiting sexual discrimination in the workplace
is Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VII applies to private employers,
state and local government employers, labor organizations, employment
agencies, and joint employer-union apprenticeship programs with 15 or more
employees. The California Fair Employment and Flousing Act (FEFIA) also
prohibits sexual discrimination in employment. FEHA applies to private public
employers, employment agencies, labor organizations, state licensing boards,
and state and local governments that have 5 or more employees (Equal Rights
Advocates, 2006).
Union activism has also played an important role in helping to protect workers
from many types of unfair treatment from employers, especially in Las Vegas and
Los Angeles where labor unions influence many service industries such as
casinos, hotels, and restaurants (Chandler & Jones, 2003).
The audit study of sex discrimination in hiring by Neumark and Bank (1996)
suggested there is discrimination against women in high-priced restaurants
where earnings are higher. This study compared men and women applying for
jobs as waiters and waitresses at restaurants in Philadelphia. The results
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indicated that there was significant evidence of discrimination against men in low-
priced restaurants and women in high-priced restaurants. The study suggested
that customers may be partially responsible for discrimination against women in
restaurant hiring. The study shows a preference of male clients for the types of
restaurants that hire male wait staff. However, customer discrimination is not a
direct preference of male clients for male waitpersons but a preference of male
customers for the types of restaurants that hire male wait staff. Further
exploration and research is required to determine if male (and female) customers
prefer male servers more than female servers in fine-dining restaurants.
The Change in Fine Dining
The new definition of fine dining in a new era might not comprise the same
formal service, traditional food and style. Since expense account entertaining for
many companies has been cut, many fine-dining establishments have opened up
to more casual concepts to sustain strong profitability. However, many fine-
dining restaurateurs no longer exist in the business because of fierce competition.
Old traditional French and other European restaurants in major metropolitan
cities such as New York City have been affected by the more casual trend of fine
dining. California fine dining has shifted to younger clientele while still catering to
older generation as well (Specter, 2003).
Customers now prefer more casual and relaxed eateries with less formal
decorations and service. Customers expect the menu to be original and fresh
(Koteff, 2006). Atlanta is a city that has opened up to a more informal fine dining
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concept. The food price in these fine-dining establishments in Atlanta is lower,
and they feature less formality but increase attention toward staff energy, guest
interaction, entertainment and "neighborhood" ambience. Many restaurants offer
much less formal décor such as creating a warehouse like atmosphere for the
new-generation experience (Hayes, 2003). National Restaurant Association
(2006) forecasted that the casual upscale type of restaurant will become a threat
to traditional fine-dining restaurants. These changes in the fine dining industry
might affect the way the service is offered in those establishments, especially by
creating more opportunity for women to work as food servers.
This literature review contains analysis and evidence of inequality and
varying opportunity between female and male food servers in fine dining
restaurants. The evolution of restaurants, starting from French cuisine and
culture to trendy and casual fine dining, was presented as well as were other
aspects from many studies regarding the perceptions of food server gender in
fine-dining establishments. However, further qualitative studies are needed to
more clearly identify the reasons behind the prevalence of male servers. In
addition, the disconnect or difference in perception between consumers and
restaurant managers should be explored further as the results and answers may
offer an alignment of perspective that can greatly benefit fine-dining restaurants
that wish to attract more customers and provide optimal service.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Instrument
The Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique, ZMET, a method developed by
Gerald Zaltman, professor Emeritus of Harvard Business School, was chosen for
this study to obtain a better understanding of fine-dining customers and
restaurant managers’ perspectives with regard to food server gender in fine-
dining establishments. The ZMET method is based mainly on various fields of
clinical psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and sociology and operates under
the assumption that people think in images, not in words (Zaltman, 2003). This
study utilized the ZMET method over other interview methods for several
reasons.
First, the ZMET approach considers the customer’s unconscious state where
the vast majority of human thought occurs, and explores how people “don’t really
know what they know. ” Managers think about consumers by using both
conscience and unconscious levels of thought, and this process also occurs with
consumers when they consider a restaurant’s offerings. The managers’
conscience and unconscious levels of thinking will eventually unite with the same
processes of customers, and both parties will ultimately influence each others’
perspectives (Zaltman, 2003). Thus, ZMET can help clarify perception
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differenœs between managers and customers by reaching more deeply into their
unconscious thoughts when compared to other interview methods. Next,
Zaltman’s method is qualitative based and attempts to access the mental
process and behaviors of the population in the target markets studied. Since this
type of in-depth qualitative approach has not been used to study gender in the
restaurant industry, this study should provide an opportunity to more deeply
explore the minds of consumers and managers in the fine-dining industry
specifically. Because people’s feelings about gender might not be a topic they
can easily explore or reveal or perhaps are not willing to discuss truthfully,
metaphors can reveal cognitive processes beyond what’s shown in literal
language (Zaltman, 2003). The role of ZMET research is also to provide useful
building blocks or tools for managers to create new product or service concepts,
reposition or alter current offerings, or develop more effective visions for their
brands and organizations (Olson Zaltman Associates, 2006).
ZMET method, when compared to other research methods either qualitative
or quantitative, allows participants to be more actively involved in the study and
subsequently allows them to communicate their thoughts and feelings more
effectively. The use of a metaphor-based method would help surface the
unsurfaced knowledge (Ratneshwar, Mick, & Huffman, 2000).
Sample Selection
Since this study aims to explore the thoughts and feelings of managers and
frequent patrons of fine-dining restaurants, two groups were selected. The first
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group included participants who represent and manage fine-dining restaurants in
Los Angeles, California and Las Vegas, Nevada. The second group of
participants was frequent diners who ate in a wide variety of fine-dining
restaurants. Ten participants (five for each group) were first chosen through
referrals and later were screened for qualifications that made them suitable for
the study. Those qualifications were; 1 ) being 30 years or older, 2) (customers)
must dine frequently (at least twice a month) at fine-dining restaurants and 3)
(managers) must have at least three to five years in the fine dining restaurant
business. Data from four or five participants are generally required to generate
all of the constructs in a consensus map (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). These
participants were divided into two groups; five fine-dining frequent patrons and
five managers and owners. The group of five managers represented the
management point-of-view relating to the gender of food servers in their
businesses and the industry as a whole. The five fine-dining frequent diners
were the voice of fine-dining consumers. Each participant was asked to bring
three to five pictures to represent their thoughts and feelings about the study
topic prior to the interviews.
The justification for sample size in this study is based on the perception that
the mind is not the possession of the individual because it has developed from
interpersonal associations and other interactions within a sociocultural world.
These associations arise in a sociocultural context that produces commonly
shared meanings for objects or events found within that context. Since emotions
and perceptions of the mind are socially constructed, the constructs in a
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consensus map that are based on a small sample of participants can be
representative of a larger population. However, the relationships between
constructs must be observed with caution and tested with a larger sample
(Zaltman, 1997).
The city of Los Angeles was chosen to represent California as the restaurant
industry is the largest private employer in California. According to California
Restaurant Association, California's restaurants provide 957,100 jobs in 2005,
which accounted for almost seven percent of those employed in California. Las
Vegas, Nevada is one of the fastest growing cities in the United States. Las
Vegas is adding new restaurants each year, some of which are fine-dining
establishments located in casinos and resorts. Las Vegas' food and beverage
industry is high-growth and offers very diverse cuisine from world-class chefs.
Las Vegas is a prime location for owning a restaurant. The city has expanded
each year as restaurant sales growth increases representing the fastest growing
regions in the lodging and foodservice industries (Nevada Restaurant
Association, 2006). Figure 1 illustrates the ratios of male and female servers in
fine-dining establishments run by the managers who participated in this study.
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12
10
8
ü 6
a>
G
B C D
Restaurant
□
■ Female
□ Male
Figurel. Ratios of male vs. female servers in fine-dining restaurants run by
managers interviewed in Las Vegas, Nevada and Los Angeles, California.
Data Collection Procedures
Participants, managers and customers, were asked to interpret their own lives
and situations, and in this case their fine dining experiences, by finding three to
five pictures that represented their thoughts and feelings about the male versus
female food servers in fine dining establishments. Participants were given seven
to ten days before the interview to think about the topic and search for the
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images from various sources such as magazines, books or the Internet. This
pre-interview stage was very important, as it prepared the interviewees to
discuss their impressions about the topic and to give them control over the
choice of stimuli used in the interview (Zaltman, 1997). Participants later
revealed their interpretations of their images during a one-on-one interview. The
interviews were between 30 to 90 minutes in length per participant.
Each interview started off with general conversations about the informants’
experience in the industry (managers) or their experience dining out in fine-dining
restaurants (customers and managers). This stage was intended to ensure the
participant was comfortable with the interview. After informal conversation, each
p
articipant was asked to explain the impressions of each image they chose and
to describe their thoughts and feelings about the image with regards to food
server genders at fine-dining establishments. Then they were asked whether
there were any images that they would like to have presented but could not find
for the interview. Next, the participants were asked to group similar images and
exclude the odd image(s) and support their choices with explanations. The
informants were also asked to use their imagination to envision themselves in the
picture and use their senses to describe their thoughts and feelings. One of the
last questions asked in the interview was to have the informants create an outline
for short story or a one-act play that was related to the topic (see Appendix II).
The informants had the freedom to create any kind of story as long as it was
related to the gender of food servers in fine-dining restaurants. The last two
creative and participatory questions noted above, were intended to explore the
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further dimensions of the participants’ thinking. In the case that some
participants did not sufficiently prepare for the interview, open-ended questions
could be used throughout the interview to encourage participants to elaborate
their thoughts more clearly and completely.
The interviews were conducted in various locations throughout Southern
California and Las Vegas, Nevada. All managers were interviewed at their
respective restaurants, and customers were interviewed at their residences or
coffee shops. Each interview was audio recorded onto miniature cassettes,
which were replayed to transcribe the discussions into constructs, visual and
data analysis.
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CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Data Analysis
Interpretation can be found "everywhere" in the ZMET process. Data must
be interpreted before it can be as useful for statistical and mathematical analyses
as it is for qualitative analyses (Olson Zaltman Associates, 2006). The Visual
Analysis in this study (see Appendix I) was created to illustrate the participants'
thoughts and interpretations of their selected images. After the interpretation of
the data, consensus maps were created to identify mental models that are
networks of interrelated constructs.
Consensus maps or "mental" maps are considered higher order
representations of consumers and managers’ perceptions as they place
individual constructs into context, and establish a structural flow between and
amongst these elements (Eden, 1992). The constructs elicited during the
interviews are aggregated to produce a consensus map that represents the
thinking of the participants. Consensus mapping creates an understanding and
analysis of the ideas obtained from the in-depth interviews. Constructs were
recorded and aggregated based on linkages mentioned within each interview,
and were based on the total number of respondents who mentioned each
individual construct.
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Zaltman (1997) mentioned a rule of thumb used in developing the final
consensus map that each given construct must be cited by half or more of the
participants in a project and be associated directly with another such construct
by one-third of the participants. A completed consensus map usually includes
between 25 and 30 constructs and represents 85% of the constructs surfaced by
any one participant. Christensen and Olson (2002, p. 484) also recommended
the development of maps that included constructs linked by one-third to one-
fourth of all participants. Figures 3 and 4; therefore, generated using a cut-off
level of two or more participants from five participants from each group with each
construct representing three or more participants per group (of five) or five of the
total participants of ten. Conceptual associations were first developed from the
key thoughts of the participants followed by cluster associations to organize the
outline of each concept. These associations are presented in Table 1 as well as
in Figure 2 and 3 as part of the consensus maps for both male and female fine-
dining servers. The maps of male servers are shown separately from female
servers to make it easy to see the concepts and major ideas of the managers
and customers associated with these two groups. The perceptions of managers
and customers are identified by two different shapes designating their respective
thoughts, and are collectively illustrated by a third shape that represents their
shared feelings. Figure 4 shows the overall fine dining experience associations
as perceived by both customers and managers.
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Table 1. Gender of Food Servers in Fine-Dining Establishments (Associations)
Cluster Association
Conceptual Association
Perception: Male Servers
Perception: Female Servers
Formal: Well groomed, Suit and tie.
Professional, and Not Distracting
Traditional: European, Old Generation,
Prestigious
Strength: Physical, Emotional, Ego and
Domination
Career path: Committed
Easy to work with and manage
Suitable for Fine-Dining Restaurants
Casual
Young Generation, Contemporary
Suitable for diners, fast food or family
restaurants
Sexual Object: Cocktail Waitresses,
Distracting
Emotional, High Maintenance
Part-time job or Short-term career: less
committed, family obligation
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Less Committed
Obligated to Family
Cleanliness
Articulate
Contemporary
Female Servers
Weakness
Flirting
Casual
Emotional
Sexual Object
Hioh Maintenance
Distraction
Younger Generation
Cocktail Waitresses
Managers’ Perceptions
Customers’ Perceptions
(2% ) Customers and Managers’ Perceptions
Figure 2. Female fine dining food servers associations as perceived by
customers and managers.
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Easv to Work With
Old Generation
Prestigious
Ego
Formal
Flirting
Male Servers
Traditional
Committed
Career Path
European
Strength
Domination
Professional Aooearance
Physically Strong
Emotionally Strong
Less Distracting
Managers’ Perceptions
Customers’ Perceptions
C O Customers and Managers’ Perceptions
Figure 3. Male fine dining food servers associations as perceived by customers
and managers.
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Well groomed
Unobtrusive
Formal
High Service Quality
Service Staff Well Dress
Efficient
Fine Dining
Well Located
Cleanliness
Food Quality
Well Decorated
Sumptuous
Decadent
Well Presented
Figure 4. Fine dining experience associations as perceived by customers and
managers.
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Picture Interpretation
During the study, the participants not only expressed their opinions on the
gender of food servers in fine-dining establishments, but also addressed other
aspects of fine dining including the food preparations, the decoration of the
restaurants, and the image of restaurant service staff. All names except where
otherwise indicated are pseudonyms. It was anticipated that the participants
would express their ideas about various topics related to fine dining, especially
during the interviews, which were intended to be conversational rather than a
series of formal questions and answers.
Rod, a director of food and beverage, expressed his thoughts about the
importance of a customer’s first impression when visiting a fine-dining restaurant.
He feels that the person who first welcomes the guest to the restaurant
immediately establishes the mood of the customer’s visit. Roberta, a customer
participant, had an awful experience visiting a very expensive fine-dining
restaurant where the hostess was condescending toward her and her husband
and made them feel unwelcome. Although the food was excellent, they never
returned to that restaurant.
Both managers and customers participating in the study stated that the
location, décor and tables appearance are very important. Chris, a general
manager of a well-known French restaurant in Southern California said, ’The
restaurant has to look great with no mistakes. First impressions are very
important to the guests’ total experience at the restaurant. ” Additionally, more
than half of the informants in this study mentioned the importance of the food
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and food preparation with regards to their fine-dining experiences. Many used
the images of chefs, kitchens, and well-decorated food for the ZMET interviews.
There is also a very strong association between fine dining and its physical
appearance. Almost every participant in the study selected the images of well-
decorated dining rooms and restaurants. This reveals that the fine dining
experience is not complete without having the right presentation of ambience.
Ambience in fine dining is not simply about décor and food; it also includes
the staff, especially the hostesses and the servers who have direct contact with
the customers, and who have a great responsibility in ensuring that the
customers have a great dining experience. Restaurant managers spend a lot of
time trying to find the right talent for those positions, especially servers. As a
frequent patron at fine-dining restaurants, Roberta expressed the importance of
the appearance of food servers. “Male and female food servers should wear the
same uniforms,” said Roberta. She preferred to see food servers dressed in
very clean black or white uniforms. She also imagined that a female server
should have her hair pulled back, and only wear light and tasteful make-up to
create wholesome look. Lastly, Roberta noted that female servers should have a
light colored manicure to show that the person who has contact with the food is
well groomed and clean.
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Manager’s Perspectives in Managing
Female vs. Male Servers
Chris, the general manager of a French restaurant in LA said, “In Los
Angeles, we have a good mix of male and female servers, although the classic
fine-dining concept is to have male servers and to hire women only as
hostesses, ” Chris believes that in the Los Angeles market, customers prefer to
be served by both male and female servers. “Like my restaurant here, I have
female servers not because it’s my choice, but because the customers want to
see female as well as male servers” Chris said. Chris recalled his experience
back in his native France where only male waiters work in very formal fine-dining
establishments. Chris feels that he can deal with male staff easier than female.
He thinks that males can handle and cope with pressure better than females. He
believes that female workers tend to be dramatic and that they are not
emotionally strong. “As a male manager I think it’s easier to work with male
servers, but my boss wants to hire female servers so I have no choice. I feel like
I cannot be as straight forward with female servers because I don’t want to hurt
their feelings. However, as a customer, I feel comfortable being served by
female servers. ”
Mark, a general manager of a fine-dining restaurant in Las Vegas also had
some difficult experiences dealing with female severs. “I had a lot of very high
maintenance female servers in the past,” he said. Although some of his male
servers are hard to work with, he felt that his female servers were more difficult
to manage. However, Mark admits that the female team (his restaurant employs
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three females out of nineteen servers) is one of the best he has ever worked with.
At the previous restaurant he managed, the staff complained that if the
restaurant had employed all male servers, they would have made a lot more tips
and the customers would have been happier. When asked about problems he
had when dealing with male servers, he brought up male egos issues. To deal
with and manage ego, he listens to his staff and gives them some freedom to
work. He tries to support them, motivate them and he never disrespects anyone.
Mark has no preference on the gender of the food servers in his restaurant.
“I want good quality people who smile a lot, have a good personality, like to
laugh, and have good energy around them,” said Mark. He always looks first at
the experience of the applicants and the caliber of the restaurants they used to
work for.
Dan, an assistant manager at a fine-dining restaurant downtown Los Angeles,
mentioned that women are better off being a cocktail waitress; they can work
less and make much more money. He talked about his previous job at a five star
hotel in Beverly Hills, and noted that its restaurants have only male servers. He
said he had no idea why there are only male servers. Sebastian, Dan’s assistant
from Germany, joined the interview. He stated that from his experience in
European fine-dining restaurants, he sees about 90% more male servers
compared to female. Restaurants owners and managers in Europe prefer
bilingual or multi lingual food severs, and when it comes to fine-dining
establishments, they prefer males who can speak multiple languages.
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Manager’s Perspectives in Fine Dining Careers
There appears to be a strong association between working in a fine-dining
restaurant, and having earned a long, prosperous career. Although many people
working in restaurant industry have part-time jobs for the short term, fine dining
tends to be a job that takes more commitment and offers more of future and a
career path than other types of restaurants. During the interview, a restaurant
general manager, Jason, stopped by and gave some thoughts about the gender
of service staff in fine-dining restaurants. He said that those individuals working
at fine-dining establishments see their jobs as a career path, and not just a part-
time job. Although there are more women in the workforce today than in the past,
they still tend to take time off from work to care for their children and their
households. Jason felt that women are not likely to have long-term food service
careers without taking extended breaks. Jason noted that men, on the other
hand, tend to stay in their career paths longer and hope to be promoted and get
ahead in the industry. He felts this happens everywhere, and not only in the
restaurant industry. Cocktail serving is a good example of female dominated
type of job. However, cocktail waiting does not offer a clearly defined career
path like fine-dining industry does to its servers. “People who want to work in
fine-dining restaurant don’t want quick money and to get out; they want a
career,” said Jason.
Rod, director of food and beverage, also has the same thoughts about the
role of men compared to women. He mentioned that what had been practiced in
the past has been passed on to today’s world. Men have always been the
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providers of the family, and women used to stay at home taking care of other
domestic chores. Fine-dining that has been established a very long time ago
started off in a male dominated era. Therefore, when we look at the traditional
classic type of fine-dining restaurants, we see all male servers.
Dynamics between Genders
Both restaurant managers in Las Vegas mentioned the dynamics that exist
between the genders. They believe that a little flirting and good service between
male server and female customer or female server and male customer will
increase guest satisfaction. The nature of the attraction between male and
female is something to consider when hiring servers. David, the general
manager of a French Mediterranean restaurant in Las Vegas, said that presence
of male servers could lead female customers to follow their recommendations
about what to order. On the other hand, if there are other male customers at the
table, women will not entirely agree with the male server. David believes that the
waiter’s male presence influences the way the female guests order their meals.
Mark said that male servers at his restaurants could sell more products to female
customers and vice versa. If he sees a group of female customers or a female
customer coming in by herself, he usually sends a male server out to take care
of them. “They seem to like it,” Mark added. Rod mentioned that he would like
to have female bartenders at his hotel because the number of male patrons
visiting the bar is much higher than female patrons, and he thinks that female
bartenders will attract more male customers who will spend more money.
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The study by Hall (1993a) supported the idea of the attraction between
genders, which is something that was noted by Mark and David. The interviews
with servers showed that both male and female servers prefer to wait on
customers who were from the opposite sex. As part of customer-provider
interactions, servers and customers do flirt. Although flirting in fine-dining
restaurants appears to be inappropriate, upscale restaurants tend to have a lot of
flirting. Servers admitted that they smile, flirt, and talk more to customers from
the opposite sex. Sometimes the flirting can mean giving good service.
Customer’s Expectations
Barb, a fine-dining customer, has no preference of the gender of food servers
in fine-dining restaurant, but favors male over female servers for business
lunches and dinners. “It is less distracting,” she said. She does not like to hear
other male executives or her male coworkers make sexual or discriminatory
comments about the waitresses. She wants to get right to business and male
servers tend to satisfy Barb’s expectations at business meals because her
coworkers are mostly male and they won’t be distracted by the service. In
addition. Barb prefers male servers during business lunches because she also
feels uncomfortable hearing sexually biased comments directed at female
servers. Barb has no preference regarding the gender of food servers when
dining out with her family and friends. However, she thinks that female servers
can do a better job describing the food, dessert, and the experience they have
had because males are often more ambivalent when offering descriptions. Barb
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has an emotional connection with female servers especially when
communicating about the food choices of the restaurants she visits. She
believes that female servers can understand what she wants better than male
servers.
Gerber, a writer from Los Angeles, has a similar idea about business
meetings at restaurants. He also thinks that businessmen feel powerful and a
sense of camaraderie by having male waiters serve them. He recalled his
experience working in New York City where he often went to business meetings
in various fine-dining restaurants. Male servers tended to be very professional
and were not distracting to the meal. Mark, in addition of not having any
preference on the gender of food servers when he attends business lunches or
dinners, preferred to use his male servers to take care of female patrons and
vice versa because he believes in the dynamics between genders. As a
manager and a customer, Mark does not believe that gender has a big impact on
providing good service.
Customer and Manager’s View on Restaurant Ambience
as Related to the Gender of Food Servers
Rod, director of food and beverage, mentioned that before choosing the
gender of food servers in a fine-dining restaurant, the manager has to study the
theme or the mood of the restaurant. Some restaurants have strong feminine
characteristics and some are very masculine. For example, male servers will be
more suitable in a steakhouse or in a restaurant that has very formal setting that
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shows masculinity (e.g., dark colors, resembling a hunting lodge). Rod believes
that the contemporary influence on fine dining, especially in metropolitan cities
like Los Angeles, is suggesting that women can blend in to that setting and
environment as well as men. Gerber showed the picture of a steakhouse in
association with male servers. Lenny also believes that the theme and type of
restaurants can also influence the hiring of male or female servers.
David, the general manager of a fine-dining restaurant at the Bellagio, Las
Vegas, said that he could see female servers working in his restaurant without
any problems. He said the look of the restaurant is quite feminine because it has
flowers, drapes, paintings, and lighter colors. Although the restaurant now has
only male servers and the only female workers are the hostesses, he thinks
female servers would fit very well in this environment.
Customer and Manager’s View on
the Change of Generations
All managers felt that changes in the industry were coming. As stated earlier
in the body of literature, there is a decline in traditional fine dining, especially in
major cities like New York City and Chicago (Koteff, 2006). According to Dan’s
experience, most customers who eat at fine-dining places are from older
generations. The main customers of his restaurant in Los Angeles are patrons
about 50 years and older. Dan, who is 30, thinks that customers from older
generations are used to seeing women in the role of housewives and men as
breadwinners. Dan does not believe that the older generations enjoy eating out
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at fine-dining restaurants because they have more money than the younger
generations. Rather, he thinks that most customers from this group enjoy not
only eating out in fine-dining settings but also enjoy seeing and being served by
male servers. It might be because male servers make them feel more
comfortable about their male dominated generation. Dan sees the trend will
change when that generation departs and he feels we will definitely see an
increasing number of female servers in fine-dining restaurants.
Rod, director of food and beverage, addressed the change of generations
from the server’s perspective. He agrees about the fact that generation and age
of customers affect their expectations of whether to prefer male or female
servers. He believes that as the generations have changed and women are
more involved in the workforce, we will see more women who are very
successful with their careers. He believes that because women have long been
suppressed, they have a stronger desire to excel and work harder than men.
Although we have already seen some changes in fine-dining industry that
trends toward contemporary and innovative types of dining, many still believe
that female servers will still be the minority group of servers in fine-dining
establishments. David, a general manager of a fine-dining French-
Mediterranean restaurant in Las Vegas, has a different opinion about the
changing world and the increasing number of females in business. When talking
about the restaurant industry, David still believes that not only are the majority of
servers in fine-dining restaurants male, but that top chefs, head chefs or head
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maitre-des are mostly male. He pointed out that the world today is still a male
dominated society and that things will not change any time soon.
Manager’s Justifications on the Hiring Process
Is it possible that there are not enough women in the labor pool or that only a
few women are interested in working in fine-dining establishments? Dan, a
general manager, said that there are not enough female servers applying for the
jobs at his restaurant and at the previous restaurant he used to work at. All
managers I interviewed for this study shared this same point of view. “There are
not enough women in the job pool,” said one of the managers from Las Vegas.
In Las Vegas, two fine-dining general managers in two mega resorts said that
there are far more male than female fine dining servers in Las Vegas. Both of
them said that they are not responsible for prescreening the applicants. The
applicants who come for the final interviews with them have already been pre
selected by the resorts’ Human Resources department.
However, I had a chance to talk to one female server at a fine-dining
restaurant in Los Angeles, California about her experience in getting jobs in fine-
dining restaurants. Elizabeth is one of two female servers in a restaurant that
has about 20 male servers. She said that many times after she walked into fine-
dining establishments to apply for a food serving position, the hostesses or even
some restaurant managers told her that they don’t hire women for that particular
position. After my short conversation with Elizabeth (personal communication,
September 8, 2006), I called ten well-known fine-dining restaurants both in Las
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Vegas, Nevada, Los Angeles, California, and a few in New York City, New York
and Chicago, Illinois to apply for a food serving position (personal
communication, September 15, 2006). An Italian restaurant with all male servers
in New York City and a few other restaurants responded that they were currently
not hiring. None of the restaurants stated that they hired only male servers. A
few restaurants unenthusiastically requested a resume and two restaurants
suggested that I apply through their corporate Human Resources department.
My experimental phone calls suggest that most of these establishments are
aware of the law; however, Elizabeth’s experience indicates that some
restaurants are breaking the law. Although discrimination hiring is illegal, many
restaurants continue to maintain the tradition of hiring only male servers, and
very few women have careers in fine dining.
Geographical Limitations
All the mangers from California that I interviewed for this study agreed that
fine dining in California is less formal and less strict (i.e. the dress code) when
compared to other places such as Europe, New York, or Chicago. Listening to
customer preferences is extremely important for a restaurant’s survival. “Young
generations, especially those in Hollywood with a lot of money, do not like to be
told what to wear and what to do when they go out for a nice meal, ” said Rod,
one of the managers who has lived in Los Angeles for over twenty years. He
added, “The world today is so hectic and has a faster pace than in the past.
People give very little notice to certain details and they could care less about the
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gender of food servers. The bottom line is if the service is good and the food is
great, nothing else should matter.”
Lenny, who travels extensively for his job, agrees that locations do affect the
type of fine-dining restaurants. He sees the trend today in Los Angeles where
fine-dining restaurants use themes such as warehouses, contemporary art
galleries, and present fusion foods instead of traditional foods. When these
restaurants want to be different they have to be less traditional. As a result,
having male or female servers is not a significant consideration for many trendy
or innovative restaurants.
Conclusion
The research findings reveal the similarities and differences of thoughts and
perceptions between customers and managers regarding the gender of food
servers in fine-dining establishments. Customers and managers tend to agree
that the formality and tradition of fine-dining restaurants are highly associated
with male servers. They see that all male servers are tradition and from the past,
and perhaps, are preferable for older generations of customers. However,
casual and contemporary dining unites both groups because they agree that
male or female servers are suitable in this type of setting. The study reveals that
women are much more acceptable to both customers and managers if they are
working in a more relaxed setting. In addition, almost everyone in the interview
believes that the change is coming, and that we’ll see more fine-dining
restaurants employing female servers.
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Customers and managers also agree about the fact that male servers are
generally stronger than female servers, both emotionally and physically. In
terms of skills, one customer thinks that female servers are better
communicators than male servers. Sometimes she felt like she was forced to
order something that she didn’t really want because male servers did not give
her a good explanation of the menu.
Both managers and customers agree that male servers have a more
professional appearance than female servers. Some customers believe that
female servers are distracting, especially for business meetings in a fine-dining
setting. Some managers believe it is easier to work with male servers although
they have to manage egos by offering those servers more autonomy during the
course of their jobs. Female servers were often described as high maintenance
and emotionally less stable than their male counterparts. Managers also believe
that women are less committed in their jobs than men who chose fine-dining
because of career possibilities.
A few customers associated female servers with cleanliness because he
believes that women take care of themselves better than men. Jon feels
comfortable being served by female servers because he knows that the food will
be clean.
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CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Discussion of Results
The purpose of this research is to determine whether there is a disconnect in
the perception and preference between customers and management in fine-
dining establishments regarding the gender of food servers. With the exploration
of consumers’ and managers’ minds using the Zaltman metaphor elicitation
technique (ZMET) for data collection, conclusions drawn from this qualitative
study regarding the gender of food servers in fine dining are presented in this
chapter.
The findings show that there’s still some disconnect between managers and
customers regarding the gender of food servers in fine-dining restaurants. It
seems that customers are slightly more open to having female servers than
managers in fine-dining establishments. Managers are more comfortable
working with male servers than female with the reasons given in the previous
chapter. This might be because they are all male and would feel more
comfortable working with servers that have the same gender. However, all
managers, when given their perspectives as customers did not have any
preference on gender of food severs and do not feel uncomfortable having
female servers in fine-dining restaurants that they visit with friends and family.
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The informants’ experience and culture have a lot of impact on their
preference on gender of food servers in fine-dining restaurants. French and
German managers who grew up in Europe have experience with a very
traditional type of service in fine-dining restaurants where servers are
predominately male. They are more accustomed to seeing and working with
male servers; therefore, they tend prefer male to female servers, especially in
very formal restaurants. Managers who work in California all agree that the fine
dining market in that region tends to be less formal and has become very trendy.
They believe that California customers enjoy being served by male and female
servers. A French manager in California personally prefers male to female
servers but hires females to please the customers and appease his boss. Some
customers who frequent business lunches and dinners tend to prefer male
servers, as they tend to be less distracting.
The type and ambience of restaurants shape the perceptions of both
customers and managers about the gender of food servers in fine-dining
restaurants. Steakhouses and other formal fine-dining settings are often
mentioned when the informants feel comfortable seeing male servers. Outdoor
casual restaurants or contemporary fine dining establishments are examples of
where the informants likely expect to see female servers. Informants often see
the gender that “fits” certain types of fine-dining restaurants.
The passage of time and the perspective of many generations have played
an important role in the current state of fine dining and will continue to impact the
industry in the future. The literature review and the interviews illustrate that the
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old expectations of formal fine dining and its service will change over time and
will eventually affect the imbalance of male and female servers in fine dining.
The use of ZMET in this study helped elicit both rational and emotional
thoughts and perceptions of both customers and managers, which otherwise
might have been left out if this study used only conventional in-depth interviews.
The images and metaphors brought deep understanding about the subjects
interviewed. Without images, the information received from participants is only
derived from surface level thoughts. For example, when Roberta was whether
she preferred male servers over female, the answer was no. When asked to
imagine herself in the picture of a fine-dining restaurant with very formal décor
and atmosphere, Roberta could see only male servers in that situation. Again,
without the use of images, Roberta’s thoughts of seeing male servers in certain
types of fine-dining restaurants would not have been discovered or elicited.
Limitations
There are some important limitations in this study that need to be addressed
and considered.
1. The locations of the fine-dining restaurants are limited to the Las Vegas
and Los Angeles metropolitan areas. It is possible that managers who
work in fine-dining restaurants within these two cities maintain stereotypes,
beliefs, and attitudes towards the gender of food servers that are different
than managers in other cities. Each individual manager has a different
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background and relationship with their male and female coworkers,
subordinates or even with family members.
2. The small sample size is another limitation of this study. However,
consistent with the principles of qualitative research, a small sample
facilitates the collection of “thick description,” that is rich and full-bodied
data (Geertz, 1989). Because of the restraint of time and resources in this
study and the characteristics of most qualitative studies, only a small
sample size of ten participants can be reasonably and closely studied.
The findings therefore cannot be generalized to other populations.
3. Note that all the managers interviewed in this study are male. All
managers recruited for this study were through referrals. I had no
preference for male managers, but from the lists of fine-dining restaurants
I used, female managers of fine-dining restaurants could not be found or
contacted at the time of the study.
4. This study represents only the customers and managers’ point of views
about the topic. Another dimension that needs to be studied is through
the food servers and their direct experience of working in fine-dining
restaurants.
5. Some perceptions and ideas by managers about the gender of food
servers are from their direct experience managing the restaurants
whereas customers cannot express their thoughts on this side of analysis.
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6. Exploration of cultural differences in various types of fine dining
establishments was not explored in this study and could be an important
addition to the study of food server gender in fine-dining restaurants.
Implications
This study has numerous implications for managers and those who are
related to the industry. The male traits that customers prefer in male servers
such as the service style, professional appearance both traditional and formal,
can be used to train the restaurants’ female servers. Knowing male and female
servers’ strengths and weaknesses will help managers utilize those traits at the
right time and for the right tasks. Both male and female servers can use their
strengths to compliment the restaurant’s operation and customer service, which
will eventually yield higher customer satisfaction.
This study presents the differences and similarities of perceptions and
preferences between the managers and customers about the gender of food
servers. It gives the managers an opportunity to learn more about their
customers and observe the disconnect between their own and their customers’
perceptions. Having and hiring more female food servers in fine dining will not
only improve the image of the fine dining industry in general, it will also narrow
the chance for the lawsuits that restaurants or firms may risk because of sex
discrimination in hiring.
Companies that desire to hire more female servers but have difficulties should
look into the reasons why there are not enough female applicants interested in
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fine-dining jobs. Studying fine-dining food servers directly will answer these
questions, and will perhaps help the restaurants to find a way to encourage
women to apply for the jobs and consider fine-dining careers.
Learning and understanding more about customer and management
perceptions, attitudes and preferences will not only help female servers move
into male dominated fine-dining occupations, but will also improve training,
recruiting, and human resources management in these restaurants. Being a
knowledgeable, fair and understanding employer will attract both customers and
high quality workers.
Directions for Future Research
Extensive research on the gender of food servers in the restaurant industry
has yet to be conducted before definitive conclusions can be drawn about the
criteria by which customers assess service quality and how best restaurateurs
can improve their service offerings.
Since less formal fine dining is becoming more popular, it is also becoming
more acceptable to employ more female servers. An additional investigation is
needed to answer the question of whether a "mixed sex" group of servers in fine-
dining restaurants enhances the quality that the customers perceive they will
experience.
The reasons given by fine-dining managers regarding hiring more male food
servers than female servers should be thoroughly investigated. Both male and
female managers should be interviewed to compare their thoughts and feelings
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about gender when hiring food servers. Whether there are not enough female
servers applying for the jobs or because they do not have enough experience
and skills to work in fine-dining restaurants, these issues must be addressed and
explored further.
Fine dining is likely practiced and perceived differently by multiple cultures
throughout the world; therefore, the gender of food servers in fine dining
restaurants could also be observed and examined throughout a spectrum of
various cultures. Different concepts and practices of fine dining in different
cultures and what influences such practices in each culture are subjects that the
restaurateurs and researchers could further explore. Researching and
understanding cross-cultural fine dining will help restaurant managers and
owners efficiently generate the best service and product offerings for their
customers.
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APPENDIX I
VISUAL ANALYSIS
Name
Gender
Occupation
Role in the study
Location
Barb
Female
Attorney
Customer / Frequent Diner
San Jose, California
This picture shows the deep
connection between female customers
and servers. Barb feels that there are
certain things that women can do better
than men, especially in the fine-dining
environment. The picture of decadent
chocolate chip cookies makes Barb
think of the times she goes to fine-
dining restaurants where she usually
orders dessert after a nice meal. She
thinks that female servers do a much
better job describing desserts. Female
servers can better explain the texture
and the experience of the desserts
better than male servers.
f«ClL
The picture shows the busy kitchen
environment with a male server and a
male chef. This picture reminds Barb of
fine-dining restaurants and their
kitchens where she can usually find
more male than female chefs and sous
chefs as well as the kitchen crew. She
sees the domination of men in fine-
dining restaurants from her experience
visiting these restaurants and their
kitchens. In general. Barb finds men
less distracting when she has business
meals with co-workers.
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Emotion and Connection with
Female Servers
Food served in a fine-dining restaurant
usually is well prepared and well
presented. This fish entrée doesn’t
appeal to her. Again, she thinks female
servers can do a better job describing
the food in detail that will help steer her
away from something that she doesn’t
like. Male servers pay less attention to
detail and try to somehow use their
power to control what customers
should order.
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Name
Gender
Occupation
Role in the study
Location
Gerber
Male
Writer
Customer / Frequent Diner
Los Angeles, California
H osie o f th e û iip ir e S te a k
Smith &Wfalleisky
llff fNi • TM «MUc I ^ SiMl, 21tH&lSN
m a a ri ! CWwg» ; C«4mta« OM»t j Wwirtan
U»V«H e H iM iB M ** Km>0>«m >u Cü,
M iw leW iu ; WMftiaetM. OX.
A picture of a waiter holding a torch in
one hand and a menu in the other
reminds him of statue of liberty in New
York City. However, instead of Lady
Liberty holding the torch, it is a waiter
standing with a torch in a similar
position as the Statue of Liberty. This
picture is from his experience living in
New York City where he often visited
Smith & Wollensky restaurant for
business lunches and dinners. This is a
good example of a fine dining
restaurant that that uses mostly male
as its wait staff. He feels less distracted
to have make servers when visiting
fine-dining restaurants for business
meals.
This picture of a meat locker with rows
of red meat and is very much related to
Smith & Wollensky or any other
steakhouses where Gerber thinks male
customers are found more often than
females. The meat is traditionally
associated with men and when visiting
expensive steakhouses, he often see s
almost all male waiters at these types
of restaurants. He thinks male servers
fit more into the environment of
steakhouses than female servers.
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Gerber chose the picture of the New
York City skyline because it is hard to
consider fine dining without commerce.
Large metropolitan areas are typically
where the greatest restaurants are as
they can attract a number of wealthy
patrons. These wealthy patrons
represent money and male dominated
society in business. He thinks
businessmen still prefer to be served
by male than female servers but I also
believe that things are changing too.
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Name
Gender
Occupation
Role in the study
Location
Jon
Male
Chief Financial Officer
Customer / Frequent Diner
Newport Beach, California
y
Cultural Differences
A picture of two female owners of a
Japanese restaurant in Dallas, Texas.
The restaurant is well decorated with
plants and woods reflecting a very fine
taste of the owners. It will be interesting
to see this restaurant during operating
hours having all female waitresses with
a lot of customers. Especially in Texas,
a male dominated and very
conservative state, Jon felt it was nice
to see two women running the
business on their own in a male
dominated industry.
II
Feminine: Warmth and Comfort
A beautiful outdoor dining table with
white tulips situated amid beautiful
garden at Pinot Blanc restaurant in St.
Helena, California. Jon associates
casual but elegant fine dining with
female. The clean color of white and
green makes him think of women. He
sees the femininity in the image and
would feel very comfortable having
female servers giving service in this
type of dining.
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The picture of a waitress at Sunset Bar
and Grill was chosen to state the point
that women can be as skillful if not
better in food serving than their male
counterparts. Although this is not a fine
dining restaurant, the waitress looks
happy and very proud of what she
does. The way she’s holding a tray in
one hand and a basket in the other
shows that she’s very skilled and has a
lot of experience working as a waitress.
If you enjoy doing something, there’s
no right or wrong gender for it. You can
be good at anything you want to be.
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Name
Gender
Occupation
Role in the study
Location
Lenny
Male
Sales Representative
Customer / Frequent Diner
Irvine, California
Allyson Thuroer ot The Lobster
The picture of a female chef and a
lobster dish with side salad and a drink
in the outdoors area of a seafood
restaurant by a marina. Lenny feels
that California is blessed with such
perfect weather. It is the place we can
enjoy eating outside in a laid back but
elegant setting. The lobster on the
plate, a chef, and a white tablecloth tell
us that this is a fine dining place. Most
restaurants in California, even the fine-
dining ones, are pretty casual. Either
male or female servers will fit in this
picture because there’s nothing show
that it is a traditional and formal place.
A picture of a very attractive art glass.
This contemporary vase with an
unusual look evokes me of those
nouveau trend restaurants especially in
Los Angeles where Lenny usually
visits. There are a lot of interesting
décor and art works in trendy
restaurants. These types of restaurants
do not last long. With regard to the
gender of the food server, today’s
contemporary fine-dining restaurants
usually do not have an emphasis on
any particular gender of food servers.
Having both male and female servers
can be a good addition to a trendy fine-
dining restaurant.
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This is a more formal restaurant where
we can see the guests are all well
dressed with suits and ties and the
waiters are wearing ties. This could be
a more upscale steakhouse with dark
wood. Whether to use male or female
food servers, Lenny thinks it depends
on the type and theme of that
restaurant. However, as long as they
can give good service, he thinks he
doesn’t mind being serviced by both
men and women in a fine-dining
restaurant.
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Name
Gender
Occupation
Role in the study
Location
Roberta
Female
Fashion Sales
Customer / Frequent Diner
New York, New York
Male = Fast and Strong
A picture of a table overlooking the
harbor. The table is set with nice
flowers, breadbaskets, and three
glasses of red wine. This looks like a
banquet room where we would usually
see male servers wearing clean and
formal uniform. It is something that
Roberta is accustomed to when going
to weddings and parties in nice hotels
and restaurants. Male servers are
really fast and strong especially when
they have to work in a fast pace and
heavy-duty functions like big parties.
A more formal dining room compared
to the first picture overlooking the city
with a skyline. This picture gives
Roberta the sense of formality
especially when it’s dinnertime. She
imagines seeing three male servers
servicing each table in a very busy
night. Male servers would fit this type of
formal meal for me. They tend to blend
in with the whole restaurant.
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►XV-
A postcard of a fine-dining restaurant
from Manhattan. From this picture she
can see a breadbasket, flowers, plants,
and fruits. This postcard is a mystery
like this restaurant. When she went
inside this place for the first time, she
felt excited to guess what kind of food
and service she would be getting. It
turned out to be Indian. She did not
remember whether the servers were all
male or not. All she knows was that the
service was excellent. She would not
feel uncomfortable if there were female
servers because this is a very
contemporary type of restaurant.
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Name
Gender
Role in the study
Cuisine Type
Location
Chris
Male
General Manager of Fine Dining
Restaurant
California French
Los Angeles, California
Male = Passion for their Jobs
An image of a male chef wearing a
white clean uniform preparing a dish.
This picture makes Chris think of an
experienced and talented chef who
enjoys creating delicious and
interesting food. He looks very
focused and calm. The dark
background makes him think of only
the cook and the food without any
interruptions from the outside world.
Almost like nothing can come
between him and his food. Like this
chef, many male servers that Chris
works with tend to be the same way
as they have a lot of passion in what
they do. They take the job very
seriously.
Balance and Formal
Chris is impressed with how the
tables are set up in this picture. The
positions of the tables, the napkins
and everything there is in balance.
He can’t find any mistakes in it. It is a
very formal dining room with a lot of
details in its presentation. Male
servers with black suits would fit very
well in this picture as it makes me
feel very formal and very important.
This is the tradition of fine dining.
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Male: Classy
An image of a waiter servicing a
couple at an upscale fine-dining
restaurant. This picture gives us a
good example of formal fine-dining
restaurant where there is all male
service staff. Male servers are very
classy. As a manager Chris feels
more comfortable working with male
servers and male staff than female.
He doesn’t have to try to be soft and
worry about their feelings. He gets
right to business without worrying
that male staff will be upset.
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Name
Gender
Role in the study
Cuisine Type
Location
Rod
Male
Director of Food and Beverage, Omni
Los Angeles Hotel
Contemporary Progressive American
Los Angeles, California
■ -
c c z l z z i
' i !
r :
II i£>fedh. h
An image of a dining table inside an all
white restaurant. The all white interior
of this restaurant gives Rod a sense of
contemporary, clean, and very modern.
This is a good example of a restaurant
that should have female servers; very
chic, intimate, and professional.
Especially in California where there’s a
lot of contemporary fine dining, it’s not
that common anymore to find a fine
dining restaurant with a strict dress
code and a very formal like in New
York City or in Europe.
Before choosing the gender of food
servers in a fine-dining restaurant, the
manager has to look at the theme or
the mood of the restaurant first. This is
a very formal setting Victorian style
dining room at the Ritz Carlton in San
Francisco. Rod can see all male
servers wearing a nice jacket, a
bowtie, a cuffed long sleeve shirt and a
white apron. Male servers fit better in
this picture because it is a very formal
setting that links to traditional fine
dining where male servers were more
prominent.
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An image of a male server serving
white wine for a couple at a fine-dining
restaurant. This scene is what we
normally see in a typical fine-dining
restaurant, very formal. The opposite
scene of this picture should be an
image of a busy diner with all female
servers wearing a dress with an apron.
If Rod goes to a diner, a breakfast
place or a coffee shop, he feels a little
strange to see male servers there.
Female servers give me the feelings of
home like these diners where we can
find comfort foods and friendly service.
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Name
Gender
Role In the study
Cuisine Type
Location
Dan
Male
Assistant General Manager of Fine
Dining Restaurant
California French
Los Angeles, California
A cartoon image of an older male
waiter slipping and spilling the food all
over the place. This image tells us that
no one is perfect. Whether you are an
experienced fine-dining restaurant
waiter or a waitress who has worked
only in the family type of restaurants.
Dan doesn’t think males are particularly
better than females in food serving.
Men just have a lot more opportunity to
do this job in society. Dan has been in
a business for a long time and he still
thinks that there is still a lot to learn
everyday. For me male or female
servers are the same to me.
An image of a lamb dish with beautiful
food presentation and a glass of red
wine on the side. This picture makes
Dan think about how detailed the
restaurant business is. Everyone from
every part of the restaurant contributes
to the success of the restaurant and
the guest experience. His mother owns
a small restaurant in the south of
France and Dan grew up with her. He
knows that every detail matters. In this
case, no matter what gender your
servers are, if they can work in a team
the restaurant will definitely be
successful.
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An image of a well-decorated dining
room with high wooden ceiling. This
elegant dining room gives me a sense
of formality. Dan sees only male
servers here wearing a black vest, a
white long sleeve shirt with a bow tie,
and long black pants. He thinks it’s
common that people will have an
image of male servers when seeing a
very formal fine-dining restaurant.
Especially for him growing up in
Europe, it is hard not to imagine seeing
male in a formal setting with dark wood
ceiling like this.
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Name
Gender
Role in the study
Cuisine Type
Location
Mark
Male
General Manager of Fine Dining
Restaurant
Contemporary Classic French and
American
Las Vegas, Nevada
A picture of a beautiful dining room with
high ceiling and glass chandeliers. This
picture is chosen because this is a
great restaurant with a nice view of Las
Vegas. The chandelier represents the
rain. Although the meal is pretty
expensive we are pretty casual. We are
more a liberal type of fine dining and
want our staff to have fun with the
guests and entertain them. We are
formal in the respect of our passion
and desire for excellent food and
beverage not the gender of service
staff we use.
An image of a smiley female server
taking care of her customers. This
picture reminds Mark of how much he
would like to have more female servers
in his restaurant. They have a few of
them now and they are such great
workers. Mark can say that they are in
the top six best servers he has ever
had. He thinks female servers can
easily convince male customers to buy
products and male servers can sell
more to female customers. They
definitely need gender diversity to run a
great restaurant.
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An image of a male waiter serving food
to customers. The reason Mark chose
this picture is to show the whole dining
experience. The gender of food server
here is not really a factor to guest’s
satisfaction. He likes that the waiter is
explaining the food and interacting with
the customers. That’s what a good
server should do whether it’s a male or
female server. One thing he learns
from his experience in F&B is that
when you are engaged and develop
the rapport with the guests, if
something goes wrong it is easier to
recover than being standoffish and
impersonal to the customer.
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Name
Gender
Role In the study
Cuisine Type
Location
David
Male
General Manager of Fine Dining
Restaurant
French-Mediterranean
Las Vegas, Nevada
An image of a restaurant worker
polishing wine glasses and setting up
dining table. We cannot see the face of
this person. David likes this picture
because he cannot tell whether the
person in it is male or female from just
seeing what he or she does. What he’s
trying to say is that gender of food
servers does not make any difference
in providing good service. He doesn’t
think that any job is good only for one
gender.
A picture of a waiter pouring some
campaign into a glass for a female
customer. This picture shows a special
kind of relationship between a male
server and a female customer. We can
see from her smile and the way she
looks at the waiter that there’s
something going on between them.
David thinks a good-looking male
server can sell the food and drink to
female customers better. And vice
versa, female servers attract male
customers. It does not hurt to flirt in this
kind of business. That’s why it’s good
to have both genders of food servers at
the restaurants.
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A colorful image of two female adults
and a girl shopping in a farmer’s
market. Their hands are all occupied by
a lot of produce such as vegetables
and fruits. This image reminds David of
his home, France. He grew up in a
village where farmers will go to the
market to sell their products. The male
farmers will be the ones producing and
the wives will be selling their products.
This French market tells us that women
and men should work together as a
team to create the best work results
like having both male and female
servers in fine-dining restaurants.
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APPENDIX II
Examples of Short Stories Created by Participants during the Interviews
Roberta:
I am going out with a group of friends in New York City for a show and we
plan to meet for dinner before the show starts. It is winter and really cold outside.
I arrive at this trendy French fine-dining restaurant a little early and an attractive
female hostess wearing all black greets me and directs me to wait near the
lounge area. I have a martini while waiting for my friends to arrive. The male
bartender is very attractive, nice and talkative.
As soon as my friends arrive, we are led by the same hostess to the dining
area of the restaurant, which has a high ceiling and is very well-decorated with
expensive paintings. We are served by a well-groomed male server wearing a
black tuxedo. “Good evening ladies, my name is Rob and I will be your server
tonight,” Rob announces. He explains the menu clearly and gives us some time
to decide what to order. Rob looks very professional and has an adorable British
accent. All the female guests keep looking at him, including all of my friends
from the table.
We order food and wait for the food to arrive. About 20 minutes later Rob
comes back with our food that looks and smells wonderful. After a few bites of
my delicious dinner I feel that something is wrong. It turns out that the smart and
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handsome Rob forgets to tell the kitchen that I am allergic to mushrooms as I
start to itch and my mouth becomes swollen. I not only have to abandon my
meal, but I have to go to the hospital and will miss the Broadway show that night.
Gerber:
Viola, a female waitress at a well-known upscale fine-dining restaurant in
Beverly Hills starts working for the first day. Her father is the owner of the
restaurant which typically hires more male than female servers. Viola is one of
out two women working as servers in the restaurant. She made a promise to her
father to come work as a waitress after she receives a brand new sport car for
her 20*^ birthday. About eight o’clock at night, Viola has to serve a table of five
businessmen who always come to the restaurant for their business meetings. An
older customer asks for their regular server but he was not there that day. Viola
is nervous at first but feels better when she starts talking to the guests.
Everything went well from the beginning until the end of the meal. However,
an older gentleman complains that Viola is not that well-trained to work in a fine-
dining restaurant. He asks to speak with the manager or the owner of the
restaurant. Viola’s father happens to be there that night and he comes to the
table and asks the guests to explain their problems. All they say is that Viola is
not a good server but they cannot really identify any mistakes they purport that
she made. The owner apologizes and tells them that Viola is his daughter and
has just started working for the first day. After that night the same group of
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customers always request to be served by Viola every time they come and never
complain about the service again.
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VITA
Graduate College
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Watcharobon Wiraboot
Local Address:
10000 S. Maryland Parkway. Apt.2124
Las Vegas, Nevada 89123
Home Address:
1515 S.Shenandoah St. Apt.201
Los Angeles, California 90035
Degree:
Bachelor of Arts in English, 2002
Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand
Thesis Title: Customer and Manager’s Perception and Preference on Food
Server Gender in Fine-Dining Establishments
Thesis Examination Committee:
Chairperson, Dr. Kathryn LaTour, Ph. D.
Committee Member, Dr. Yen-Soon Kim, Ph. D.
Committee Member, Dr. Jean Hertzman, Ph. D.
Graduate Faculty Representative, Dr. Michael LaTour, Ph. D.
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